Who Were the Varangians: Warriors, Traders, and Founders of Old Rus’

Who Were the Varangians and Where Did This Name Come From

The Varangians were natives of Scandinavia who played a crucial role in the formation of the Old Russian state. In Western Europe, Scandinavians were called Normans, while in Rus’ the name “Varangians” became established. This term was used approximately until the 12th century, after which it was replaced by the generalized designation “Nemtsy” (“Germans”), by which the Eastern Slavs referred to people from Northern and Western Europe. The origin of the word “Varangian” is still debated among historians. The Old Norse word voeringi appears in sagas and chronicles; it derives from varar, meaning “loyalty, oath, pledge.” In Scandinavian written sources, varangians were mercenaries who served in the elite Varangian Corps in Byzantium — a privileged unit of the emperor’s bodyguards.

Different Versions of the Term’s Origin

The Austrian historian Sigismund von Herberstein suggested that the name “Varangian” was connected with the geographic region of Wagria, where the Vandals lived. The Russian historian S. Gedeonov found the word “warang,” meaning “sword,” in a Baltic-Slavic dictionary. Linguist M. Vasmer considered the Scandinavian concept váringr — loyalty and responsibility — to be the progenitor of the term. Interestingly, the Baltic Sea was called the Varangian Sea until the 12th century, which indicates the antiquity of the concept itself and its close association with this region.

Varangians and Vikings: Key Differences

Many mistakenly equate Varangians with Vikings; however, there is a fundamental difference between these concepts. Vikings were pirates and raiders, seekers of plunder who terrorized Europe. The Viking Age in Western Europe began on June 8, 793, with the brutal attack on the monastery of St. Cuthbert on the island of Lindisfarne. Most researchers associate the word “viking” with the Old Norse vík — bay or fjord. The Swedish scholar Fritz Askeborg proposed a hypothesis that it derives from the verb vikja — “to turn aside, deviate.” A Viking, abandoning the usual way of life, set out on an expedition in search of fortune. Vikings were most often younger sons, since property and titles usually went to the eldest heirs.

Varangians as Warriors and Traders

Unlike Vikings, Varangians represented a broader concept. They were seafarers, traders, mercenary warriors, and colonists. Western Slavs — the Veneti, Wagrians, and Obodrites — who constituted the advanced social stratum of medieval society, were also called Varangians. Varangians often became mercenary warriors guarding the borders of Byzantium. The famous Varangian Guard was created in 988 and existed until the fall of Constantinople. The Byzantine princess Anna Komnene wrote in her work “The Alexiad” that Varangians regarded service in defense of the state as an honorable duty passed down by inheritance.

Symbolic Differences: Raven and Falcon

Vikings, who considered themselves warriors, worshipped the god Odin, like all Scandinavians. Odin’s constant companions were ravens — birds that were disliked in Rus’ because of their tendency to feed on carrion. It was the raven that was depicted on the banner of the famous Viking leader Ragnar Lodbrok. The sacred bird of the Varangians was the falcon, which honestly hunted live prey. The falcon was the bird of Perun himself — the ancient Slavic god, whom the Varangians revered along with Svarog. Since ancient times, the falcon was honored as a symbol of courage, dignity, and honor.

The Appearance of the Varangians in Rus’

The first mention of the word “Rus’” as the name of a people was found by historians in the Bertin Annals of 839. The document recounts the arrival at the residence of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious of a Greek embassy that included people of Scandinavian origin who claimed that “their people are called Ros.” The word “Rus’” itself goes back to the Finnish name for natives of Scandinavia — Ruotsi, which in turn derives from Old Norse words meaning “rower” or “participant in expeditions on rowing vessels.” Scandinavians in Eastern Europe called themselves Rus’: to the east they went “to Rus’,” and to the west — “to Viking.”

The Invitation of the Varangians in 862

The first political event in the history of the Old Russian state is considered to be the invitation of Varangian princes in 862. According to the “Primary Chronicle,” after the expulsion of the Varangians who had collected tribute from the northern tribes, internecine strife began: “clan rose against clan, and there was discord among them, and they began to fight one another.” Then the Slavic tribes — the Chud, the Slovene, the Krivichi, and the Ves — turned to the Varangians: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and govern us.” Three brothers were invited: Rurik settled in Novgorod, Sineus at Beloozero, and Truvor in Izborsk. The names of these princes are known from Scandinavian sources: Rurik — Hroerekr (“famous for might”), Sineus — Signjotr (“one who uses victory”), Truvor — Þórvarðr (“guardian of Thor”). They founded the Rurikid dynasty, which ruled in Russia until the end of the 16th century. Unlike the expelled Varangians, the invited princes were to rule “by agreement, by right.”

The Role of the Varangians in the Life of Old Rus’

In the 9th–10th centuries, Varangians played a significant role in the Russian lands. They appeared as wealthy traders traveling along the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which ran by water from the Baltic Sea to the Black and Mediterranean Seas.

Formation of Trading Communities

Varangian merchants in the largest Slavic cities were so numerous that they formed communities that dominated the local population. After Russian princes began hiring Varangian retinues, the number of foreigners increased so much that even Novgorod, traditionally a Slavic city, came to be considered Varangian. The Kievan princes Askold and Dir organized a campaign against Constantinople thanks to Varangian mercenaries. According to chronicles, upon approaching Kyiv by sea, they learned that its inhabitants were under Khazar domination and became rulers of the city. There is even a theory that Kyiv was founded by Varangian tribes, as evidenced by the cult of Perun — the chief deity of the Varangians.

Varangians in Princely Retinues

By the 10th century, the word “Rus’” had evolved from a designation for Scandinavians into the name of the princely retinue. Slavs perceived the Rus’ as local, “their own,” even though they were Varangians. Varangians had a special status in Rus’, enshrined in the first legal code — Russkaya Pravda in the mid-11th century. The expressions “many in the retinue” and “all Rus’” became synonymous. The change in the composition of embassies is indicative: in the treaty with the Greeks of 911, envoys “of the Rus’ clan” had exclusively Scandinavian names — Karl, Ingelde, Farulf, Veremud — whereas in the document of 945 Slavic names already appear — Sviatoslav and Volodislav. Prominent representatives of the Varangian nobility were Princes Oleg and Igor, who fought Byzantium in the first half of the 10th century, as well as the voivode Sveneld.

Varangian Service in Byzantium

Byzantine sources first mention Varangians in descriptions of events in 1034. The historian John Skylitzes reports that under Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian, Varangians actively participated in the life of the empire. They fought pirates, guarded pilgrims, defended borders against the Pechenegs, suppressed uprisings in Bulgaria, and took part in campaigns in Sicily and military operations on the Asia Minor peninsula. The Varangian Corps in Byzantium was an elite unit of the imperial bodyguards. Service in this corps was considered prestigious and well paid. The Persian philosopher Al-Biruni from the state of Khwarezm in Central Asia mentioned the Varangians in 1029, which testifies to their fame far beyond Europe. In Byzantine writings, Varangians were called “Varangoi,” emphasizing their role as loyal defenders of the empire. Some historians even suggest that the term “Varangian” itself originated precisely in Rus’, albeit in a Scandinavian environment, and that the Slavs adopted it as a designation for all Scandinavian peoples.

The Disappearance of the Varangians from History

Over time, the opposition “Varangians — Rus’” began to take hold. Varangians were again perceived as mercenaries “from across the sea.” Prince Vladimir in 980 invited Varangians to seize the Kievan throne, but when the mercenaries began demanding ransom from the inhabitants of Kyiv, considering the city their own, he sent them to Constantinople with a warning to the emperor: “Varangians are coming to you; do not keep them in the capital, or they will cause you the same harm as here…”

Cessation of Mentions in Chronicles

After 1116, the word “Varangians” practically disappears from historical documents. The last significant mention dates to 1201, when the Novgorod Chronicle reports a peace treaty with the Varangians after a conflict on the island of Gotland. The Varangians ceased to play a noticeable role in the public life of Rus’ after the end of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054. In the same year, the inhabitants of Novgorod stopped paying the Varangians a tribute of 300 grivnas, established earlier by Oleg, as the term of the agreement had expired. This indicated that the Slavic princes had strengthened their power and no longer needed Varangian military support.

Assimilation into the Slavic Environment

Most likely, the Varangians assimilated in Rus’, marrying Slavic women and gradually merging with the local population. They ceased to differ from the inhabitants of Rus’ in language, culture, and way of life. This process stretched over several generations, as a result of which the Varangian element was completely absorbed into the Slavic environment. There is an opinion that the Varangians were not so much an ethnic designation as the name of a profession or social estate associated with mercenary military service and trade. However, Old Russian chronicles still point to the ethnic component of this concept, mentioning Varangians alongside other peoples.

Varangians in the Context of the Norman Theory

The question of the role of the Varangians is closely connected with the debate between Normanists and Anti-Normanists, ongoing since the 18th century. Normanists defend the view that natives of Scandinavia had a significant influence on the creation of the Old Russian state at the turn of the 9th–10th centuries. Anti-Normanists, on the other hand, believe that statehood arose among the Slavs independently, and that the Varangians played only a secondary role. In the 18th century, the Russian historian Vasily Tatishchev suggested that the name “Varangian” derived from the word “varg,” meaning “robber,” which was meant to emphasize the negative role of the Scandinavians.

Historical Truth in the Middle

Modern researchers conclude that the truth lies in between: the Varangians did indeed contribute to state formation, founding the ruling dynasty, enriching culture, and promoting the development of trade. However, the basis of the state was formed by Slavic tribes with their culture, traditions, and social structures. The Varangians explored lands not only in the West but also in the East. Here, people of the North sought new places for settlement and, most importantly, new routes to wealth and glory. Their route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” became the most important trade artery of medieval Europe, linking Scandinavia with Byzantium through the lands of the Eastern Slavs.

The Legacy of the Varangians in Russian History

The Varangians left a significant mark on the history of Old Rus’. The Rurikid dynasty, founded by a Varangian prince, ruled the Russian lands for more than seven centuries — until the end of the 16th century. It is one of the longest-ruling dynasties in European history. The cultural influence of the Varangians is evident in archaeological finds, toponymy, and language. Scandinavian names and words entered the Old Russian language, enriching its vocabulary. The trade connections established by the Varangians contributed to the economic development of Rus’ and its integration into the European system of international trade. The Varangians played the role of a catalyst in the process of forming the Old Russian state, introducing elements of Scandinavian political culture and military art. However, the state itself arose on the basis of Slavic tribal unions and was the result of the internal socio-economic development of Eastern Slavic society. The study of the history of the Varangians continues today. Archaeological excavations, analysis of written sources, and genetic research help to understand the complex processes of interaction between Scandinavians and Slavs in the early Middle Ages. This interaction became one of the factors that determined the unique path of development of Russian civilization.